History of the Essay

History of the Essay. Tracing the definitive history of the essay is not an easy task. But for the purposes of this article, the context in which the history of the essay is treated is essay as a literary form. The word "essay" is derived from the French word essayer which, in turn, is culled from exagium or, more accurately, exagere -- a Latin word which means "to weigh" or "to sift". It is often held that Michel de Montaigne is the father of the essay as it was he who arguably introduced the style of using a very personal voice in writing. That was in 16th century -- about 400 years back from today. Before and during Montaigne's lifetime, literary works and almost every published writing are governed by very formal approaches. The conversational approach was an alien concept to writing during those days. It is in Essais, a two-volume book published in 1580-1588, where Montaigne first used the word and applied that approach in a published work. It was, in the context of the history of the essay, a pioneering feat.

While the history of the essay as a literary form may be conceived as starting off with Bacon, it did not take long enough for it to grow. In Essaying the Essay (1970), Burges Johnson maintains that the distinguished Sir Francis Bacon "borrowed this word essay from Montaigne, turn[ed] it into English and use[d] it as a title for some short prose experiments of his own" (p. 52), such as his Essays: Or Counsels, Civil and Moral (1597). It only took two decades at most for Montaigne's Essais to be followed by another seminal work. More importantly, it was Bacon who made the essay "a definite form" which was soon seized by many other writers who saw it as a "release from a traditional formality" (p. 52). From then on, the essay has become one of the -- if not the -- widely used literary form.

It can be maintained that the history of the essay has been significantly shaped by the social circumstances prevailing at the time. Alan Sinfield and Lindsay Smith are apt to point out in Textual Practice (1998) that the history of the essay "has its origins in the cultural revolution of the Renaissance" (p. 49). The Renaissance was a pivotal moment in human history because it was the time when the arts were driven by the desire to focus more on the human self and less on religious matters, the latter being the long-standing influence of the dark or medieval ages. Not surprisingly, literature also became a part of the Renaissance movement. Thus, the history of the essay finds its origins in the core Renaissance ideal of "rebirth" -- the rebirth of the human self.


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Research Paper Topics

Research paper topics. Determining the topic is the first stage in writing a research paper. There are many topics for a research paper to choose from. An important thing to consider is to narrow down your choices. Also, you should select the research paper topic which you are comfortable with, or which you are interested. In fact, you may even use recent controversial issues as your topic since there are many sources which you can find for them. Here are several suggested research paper topics:

• The effects of status updates in Facebook on married couples
• The limits of personal information privacy for online social network users
• The evolution of the mobile phone over the past twenty years
• Assessing the child-rearing capabilities of same-sex couples who wish to adopt a child
• Assessing the arguments against same-sex marriage

Here are more research paper topics:

• Determining the differences between same-sex "union" and "marriage"
• When is self-restraint in the mass media necessary to protect personal rights?
• Has the government focused too much on international rather than domestic threats of terrorism?
• The clash between the freedom of religion and the police power of the State

There are many other research paper topics to choose from. Care should be taken in carefully limiting the scope of your topic so that it will neither be too broad nor too specific. A good topic for a research paper is not only interesting but also fit for your intended purpose.

You may also want to read about the parts of a research paper, or how to summarize a research paper.

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Format of an Essay

Format of an Essay. All good essays always follow a certain "form". An essay's format is like the blueprint for a building or the skeleton of the human body. The format of an essay directs the flow of your ideas. It also guides the discussion of your topic in a logical sequence. As a rule of thumb, the format of an essay is divided into three parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. However, there's more to an essay format than those three parts. Let's have a closer look at the format of an essay.

The Introduction
All essay formats must have a paragraph where the topic of the essay is first and briefly stated. The topic is typically written as a general claim or, in other words, as a thesis statement. A summary of the supporting points for the thesis statement may also be included in the introduction. Note that the format of an essay does not necessarily require that the paper should immediately begin with the thesis statement. In fact, other essays can be started with a relevant quote taken from another book or essay. In essence, the introduction is where the writer states what the essay is about and how, if any, the writer will prove his thesis or claim. For a more detailed explanation of the essay's introduction, click here.

The Body
In the format of an essay, body paragraphs explain what has been said in the introduction. There can be as many body paragraphs as there are supporting points that the writer may have. Ideally, one paragraph is devoted for every supporting idea. Since there can be three or more paragraphs in the body of the essay, the smooth transition from one paragraph to another is important. Otherwise, it defeats the purpose of following the format of an essay, which is to ensure a logical sequence of the discussion. For a more detailed explanation of the essay's body paragraphs, click here.

The Conclusion
The conclusion is the final section in the format of an essay. It "wraps up" everything that has been written in the body paragraphs. Usually, the essay's conclusion does not simply close the discussion or restate the general claim. It may also offer an alternative solution, a striking question, or a proposal for further discussion. For a more detailed explanation of the essay's conclusion, click here.

The format of an essay helps writers clearly and logically discuss their ideas. Without the proper essay format, your paper will most likely get a low mark.

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Quotes versus Paraphrase

Quotes Versus Paraphrase. What are the differences between a quote and a paraphrase? To begin with, a quote—or, more precisely, a direct quote—is a phrase , sentence, or an entire paragraph that is an original or exact reproduction or copy of the original text. It begins and ends with quotation (“ ”) marks, signifying that the quoted line is borrowed from another source. On the other hand, a paraphrase is an interpretation or restatement of an idea taken from another text. Note, however, that both direct quotes and paraphrases require proper attribution, which means that the sources from which they were taken should be properly cited. Whether it is a quote or a paraphrase, in-text citation is required as a rule.

Basically, the difference a quote and a paraphrase is on how the borrowed text is reproduced in another essay. If the borrowed text is reproduced or written as they appear from the original source, the reproduced text is then called a direct quote which is marked by quotations (“ ”). If, on the other hand, the borrowed text is rewritten differently or the same idea is written through the use of approximately similar terms or words, the reproduced text is then called a paraphrase. Thus, to quote essentially means to copy as is without changing anything. To paraphrase, therefore, means to rewrite or reword the original text.

If you intend to quote a passage from, say, a book or a journal article, put your chosen passage in quotation marks and cite the source right after the quoted passage. For example, if the original text says Globalization has widened the disparity between the rich and the poor, quote it in your essay by writing down “Globalization has widened the disparity between the rich and the poor” (Bakersfield, p. 34). Note the quotation marks and the citation after the quoted line.

On the other hand, if you intend to paraphrase a certain line from a book chapter or a paragraph in an essay, rewrite or reword the passage as you see fit but still retaining the essence of or the main point or idea of the passage. Then, place a citation after the paraphrase. For example, if the original text says Globalization has widened the disparity between the rich and the poor, you may rewrite the passage in this way: The rich are getting richer while the poor are getting poorer because of globalization (Bakersfield, p. 34).

As to which between a quote and a paraphrase is better, the answer relatively depends on your preference. There are no rules stating when to use a paraphrase or a direct quote, unless your teacher or your course dictates you to choose either one or both of them. A bit of information that may be of good use: you may paraphrase a direct quote from another text, and you may quote a paraphrase from another source.

You may want to read how to paraphrase, some paraphrasing samples, how to paraphrase a poem, what is paraphrasing, or how to paraphrase a direct quote.

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What is a Deductive Argument?

A Deductive Argument is a form of argument where the conclusion logically follows from the given premises. If the premises in a deductive argument are true and strongly support the conclusion, then the conclusion of the argument must also be logically true. It basically has three parts: (1) the major premise, (2) the minor premise, and (3) the conclusion.

A premise is a statement in an argument that gives support or reason or for the argument's conclusion. A major premise is the first premise in typical forms of deductive arguments. It contains both the "middle" and "major" terms. The middle term (symbol: M) is basically the term found in the argument's premises and not in the conclusion. The major term is the term found in the major premise and is also the predicate (symbol: P) in the conclusion.

A minor premise is the second premise in a Deductive Argument. It contains both the "middle" and "minor" terms. The minor term is also the subject term (symbol: S) of the conclusion. Here is an example of a simple deductive argument:

All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.

In the deductive argument example, All men are mortal is the major premise. Within it, men is the middle term (M) while mortal is the major term. On the other hand, Socrates is a man is the minor premise. Within it, Socrates is the minor term. In the conclusion Socrates is a mortal, Socrates is the subject term (S) while mortal is the predicate term (P). Notice that the conclusion necessarily and logically follows from the given set of premises. That is, the conclusion Socrates is a mortal necessarily follows from the premises All men are mortal and Socrates is a man.

A deductive argument may be valid or invalid, sound or unsound. A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises and invalid if otherwise. On the other hand, if the premises of the argument are true, then the argument is sound; it is unsound if otherwise. A valid deductive argument may or may not be sound. For a deductive argument to be sound, the premises must be true and the argument valid.

See more examples of deductive arguments.

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What is an Inductive Argument?

An Inductive Argument is a form of argument where the premises support the probability or likelihood of the conclusion. Regardless of the number of premises, the strength of the conclusion in an inductive argument depends on the strength of the individual premises that support it.

In comparison to a deductive argument, the conclusion in an inductive argument does not necessarily follow from its premises. The conclusion in this type of argument may only be determined in terms of its probability or likelihood of being true (probable or otherwise) and not its truth-value per se (true or false).

Here is a basic example of an Inductive Argument:

She has long hair.(P1)
She smiles perfectly.(P2)
She moves elegantly.(P3)
Therefore, she is beautiful.

Notice that the premises (P1 to P3) are independent of one another and support the conclusion separately. In short, they do not logically follow from one another. Each of the premises support the conclusion.

See more examples of Inductive Arguments.

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What is a Rhetorical Argument?

What is a Rhetorical Argument? A Rhetorical Argument is basically a persuasive argument that uses one or a combination of its three distinct "appeals": Ethos, Pathos, and Logos. An argument that makes use of Ethos appeals to the character of the speaker. An argument that makes use of Pathos appeals to emotion. Lastly, an argument that makes use of Logos appeals to reason. In general, a Rhetorical Argument may make use of one or a combination of any of the appeals. Here are several examples of the three distinct appeals commonly used in Rhetorical Arguments.

ETHOS
To use Ethos is to appeal to the character of the speaker. That is, a claim may be argued and may be supported through a reference to the reputation, character or authority of the speaker. For example,

I will never steal from the cash register because I have been employee of the month for three consecutive months now. As far as our colleagues know, I am a kind and religious person who has been very helpful to my fellow employees in this restaurant. It does not make sense to accuse me of stealing the money.


PATHOS
To use Pathos is to appeal to the emotions of the reader or the audience. The primary goal is to persuade the reader or the audience through the use of key words or language that appeal to the feelings of a person. For example,

John will never steal from the cash register. If he did, he will be fired from work and will be sent to jail. Who will now finance the needs of his family? His wife does not have a job. He has three little kids who need the guidance of a loving father. Without John by their side, they will grow fatherless and, God knows, they may turn into homeless kids. John should not be suspected of committing the crime.


LOGOS
To use Logos is to use reason to persuade or to make an argument. Typically, it makes use of deductive or inductive arguments to prove a point. For example,

(Logos using a deductive argument)
Chris was alone in the office at 8 o'clock in the evening. The crime took place at around 30 minutes past 8PM. Therefore, there is reason to become suspicious that Chris stole the money from the cash register.

(Logos using an inductive argument)
Chris has a previous theft record in the city police. He said the other day that he barely had any money left in his bank account and that he had no money to buy food. The security cameras also reveal that he was inside the store premises the night the crime took place. Therefore, there is reason to become suspicious that Chris stole the money from the cash register.


Ethos, Pathos and Logos are three of the argument types usually used in a Rhetorical Argument. Most persuasive arguments using the rhetorical approach make use of a combination from any of three argument types. You may also want to know more about Classical Arguments, or how to use Ethos, or how to use logos in a Rhetorical argument.

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What is a Classical Argument Essay?

A Classical argument is the basic form of persuasive argument typically used in essays and position papers. It has at least five parts: the introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, and conclusion. The parts of a classical argument are arranged logically. That is, one section logically follows from the one before it. It is styled in this way for ease of transition in thought, especially for the main purpose of effectively persuading the reader or audience. The following is an explanation of the different parts of a classical argument.

Introduction
The speaker/writer has at least three tasks in the introductory part of a classical argument. These are: (1) to warm up to the audience, (2) to establish a connection or "rapport" with the audience, and (3) to state the general claim of the argument.

Narration
This is where the speaker/writer has to provide a summary of the background information relevant to the argument. This is also where the speaker/writer outlines the circumstances that lead to the claim and its corresponding consequences. In some examples of classical arguments, the narration comes together with the introduction.

Confirmation
This is where the speaker/writer gives the supporting evidence to the claim. Supporting facts and opinion from authority are usually included in this section. The stronger the link between the supporting evidence and the claim, the stronger the argument of the speaker/writer will be. This is also the part where the claim is elaborated. A typical technique used in the confirmation section of a classical argument is the Toulmin technique.

Refutation
This is where the opposing claims are presented or acknowledged, and then addressed accordingly. In most cases, counter-examples are best used as counter-arguments for the opposing claims. This is also the part of the classical argument where the speaker/writer anticipates possible objection to his claim and addresses them appropriately.

Conclusion
This is the final part of the classical argument where the speaker/writer summarizes the main points and reiterates the claim. In some cases, speakers/writers using this form of argument end with an appeal to the emotion of the reader or audience.

In summary, the Classical Argument is a basic approach to the art of persuasion. It contains the essential parts of any persuasive argument. Its transition is logical, making it an easy-to-use technique without sacrificing the quality of the transition of thoughts. You may also want to learn How to Write a Classical Argument Essay, or know more about Rhetorical Arguments.

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What are the Parts of a Term Paper

The term paper has several parts, namely: title page, introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis, results, discussion, conclusion, reference page. Each of the sections of any term paper has a specific purpose and should not be confused with the rest of the other parts. Here are several descriptions of the parts of a term paper:

The Title Page is where the title of the term paper and information about the author appear.

The Introduction is where the author introduces the main thesis or claim of the term paper. It is also the part where the primary question sought to be answered by the term paper is first stated. A brief sketch of the methodology is given as well.

The Literature Review is where the author reviews articles that are relevant to the thesis of the term paper. Whether the articles affirm or refute the main claim of the paper, the inclusion of these articles is conventional. Basically, the articles to be included in the term paper's literature review should be academic and should be credible in order to give strength to the quality of the paper.

The Methodology is where the author outlines and elaborates the steps that are to be applied in resolving the given problem. This is the section of the term paper which also presents a systematic explanation of why the chosen method has been selected.

The Data Analysis section is where the results of the methodology is given. The resulting data (actual results) are analyzed in terms of the expected results and in terms of the hypothesis.

The Results section is where the results of the data analysis are presented.

The Discussion section is where the author discusses the results of the data analysis through the chosen methodology. This is the part where the author assesses whether the hypothesis has been affirmed or refuted.

The Conclusions section is where the author closes the term paper with a brief reiteration of the problem at hand, the hypothesis provided, the procedures taken and the results of the data analysis. This is the part where the author provides the final affirmation or the refutation of the hypothesis. This section may also included suggestions for future research and for the application of the results of the term paper.

Lastly, the Reference page is where all the sources are listed down in proper order. The order of the references depends on the referencing style adopted such as APA and MLA.

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What is Toulmin Argument

Toulmin Argumentation is a model of argument which suggests six parts in any argumentative text. These elements include: data, claim, warrants, qualifiers, rebuttals and backing statements. Basically, Toulmin Argument analyzes the aspects of your position paper, for instance, so that you can identify the weak points of your arguments and work on them while further improving your strong points as needed. Here are the basic items involved in Toulmin Arguments.

1. Data/Grounds

These are the evidence that you will use to support your claim or position.


2. Claim

The statement which you are offering for others, such as your readers or listeners, to accept.


3. Warrants

These link your data/grounds with your claim. They also explain why the data supports the claim.


4. Qualifiers

These are words or phrases which show the strength of the connection between the claim and the data.


5. Rebuttals

These are the arguments which are directed against the possible objections to your claim.


6. Backing Statements

These give extra support to your warrants.

Here is an example of a Toulmin Argument:

You should stop smoking [Claim] because studies show that almost [Qualifier] 80% of smokers can develop lung cancer [Data/Ground]. Stopping a bad habit can help reduce the occurence of its bad consequences [Warrant, *can be stated or left unstated]. Life expectancy is lengthened if habits bad to one's health are stopped [Backing Statement]. Although it is not always the case that people who smoke will suffer from lung cancer, the risks are higher for those who smoke routinely [Rebuttal].

You may also want to learn more about how to write a Rogerian Argument. You can also try a Toulmin Argument sample, how to write a Toulmin argument, or learn more about Classical Argument.

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What is Paraphrasing?

Paraphrasing is basically putting other people's words into your own words. It's like rewording what somebody else has said or written. To paraphrase effectively, you should first know the thought or idea behind the words or sentence you want to paraphrase. Whether you are paraphrasing a short quote from an essay or a book or an entire paragraph, you can either summarize or lengthen the passage you want to reword into your own words. The secret, however, is your ability to absorb the idea from the original text and writing it down yourself, as if repeating what was originally written.

A good paraphrase is one that is able to "imitate" the idea of the original phrase, sentence or paragraph without actually copying the exact original text. A good paraphrase is able to "duplicate" the idea behind the original text through the use of synonymous words, phrases or sentences without copying the same words. In short, paraphrasing is duplicating the idea but NOT the text itself.

Follow the link to find out how to paraphrase a direct quote from a book or journal article, how to paraphrase a poem, quotes versus paraphrase, or read some paraphrasing samples.


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What are the Parts of a Research Paper

In writing a research paper, take careful note of its parts. The research paper has at least nine essential parts although, of course, there may be additional parts depending on the discretion of your instructor. The basic principle to consider in writing a research paper is that you should first consider and familiarize yourself with the "works" of others and then try to compare them with your ideas.

1. Title Page

Oftentimes referred to as the cover page, this section is where you indicate the title of your research, your name, institutional information and a few other relevant information prescribed by your instructor.

2. Introduction

Introduce to your reader the "problem" by providing a brief background of your research. Include the basic reasons how and why you came-up with the problem, and the probable solutions that you can offer. In general, the introduction summarizes the purpose of the research paper.

3. Literature Review

This section is where you will be providing all the relevant readings from previous works. Provide brief summaries or descriptions of the works of other authors. Make sure that your research materials are from credible sources such as academic books and peer-reviewed journals. Also, make sure that your reading materials are directly relevant to the topic of your research paper. The literature review typically includes the names of the authors, the titles of their works and the year of the publication of these works.

4. Methodology

This section is where you will be providing the methods that you will be using in your research. Typical methodologies include laboratory experiments, statistical or mathematical calculations/computations, and comparison of existing literature.

5. Data Analysis

This section is where you will be analyzing the data that you have obtained from the methodological operation that you have chosen. Depending on the type of your research paper, data analysis instruments and operations may vary. Common data analysis methods include but are not limited to SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats) which is a form of a qualitative data analysis.

6. Results

This section is where you will be presenting the actual results of the analysis that you have made based on your chosen methodology.

7. Discussion

This is where you will be discussing more of the results of your research, its implications on other fields as well as the possible improvements that can be made in order to further develop the concerns of your research. This is also the section where you need to present the importance of your study and how it will be able to contribute to the field.

8. Conclusion

Provide the conclusion to your research paper. While it is important to restate your general thesis in this section, it is also important to include a brief restatement of the other parts of the research paper such as the methodology, data analysis and results.

9. Reference Page

This section is where you list down all the academic materials you have used as sources of information in your research paper. Typical reference formats/styles include but are not limited to APA 5th, Harvard, MLA and Chicago/Turabian.

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What is a Rogerian Argument

Before you know how to write a Rogerian argument, you should first know what a Rogerian argument is. A Rogerian argument is also called the "common ground" argument because this method requires you to identify the ideas, beliefs and arguments you and your audience share in common. The assumption, therefore, is that you and your intended audience share common ideas, beliefs and arguments. Hence, the task is to identify these commonalities and use them to further argue.

Rogerian arguments are oftentimes used in essays such as position papers. One advantage of using Rogerian argumentation is that the writer or speaker gains the attention of the audience and prevents them from immediately arguing in opposition. The effect is that you'll be more likely to persuade your listeners or readers.

Here are some Rogerian argument ideas.


Rogerian Argument Outline

1. Introduce the problem and show why you and your intended audience are affected by the problem.


2. Lay down the common beliefs, ideas and arguments between you and your listeners (if you are speaking) or readers (if you are writing a position paper).


3. Reveal the position that you are holding without saying that your position is better than the opposing belief.


4. Show instances where and when your position is valid and how your position differs from the opposing belief.


5. State your thesis.
   

Rogerian Argument Example/Sample (corresponding to the outline above using the topic cigarette smoking)

1. Smoking cigarettes can cause lung problems. Both first-hand and second-hand smokers are affected by cigarette smoke.


2. Scientific findings and researches show that the chemicals in cigarettes, apart from the smoke, can lead to health problems such as lung cancer.


3. Smoking cigarettes should be banned in public places.


4. In public places, more people, both young and old, can be exposed to the smoke from cigarettes. My position differs from those who might say that smoking altogether should not be banned. My position is that smoking in public places should be banned. It does not include smoking in private places like homes.


5. Smoking in public places should be banned because it poses health risks to individuals who are non-smokers and who do not want to inhale the fumes from cigarettes. The risks are double to those who already have lung ailments.
   

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